[94] While Rome was preparing to move against Pontus, Mithridates arranged the massacre of some eighty thousand Roman and Italian expatriates and their families, confiscating any available properties. [76] Without troops defending Rome itself, Sulla entered the city; once there, however, his men were pelted with stones from the rooftops by common people. Pompey was then dispatched to recover Sicily. You can limit HOLLIS searches to your time period, but sources may be published later, such as a person's diary published posthumously. From 133BC and the start of Tiberius Gracchus' land reforms, Italian communities were displaced from de jure Roman public lands over which no title had been enforced for generations. Primary sources are contrasted with secondary sources, works that provide analysis, commentary, or criticism on the primary source. Sulla retained his earlier reforms, which required senatorial approval before any bill could be submitted to the Plebeian Council (the principal popular assembly), and which had also restored the older, more aristocratic "Servian" organization to the Centuriate Assembly (assembly of soldiers). [33] Winning Bocchus' friendship and making plain Rome's demands for Jugurtha's deliverance, Sulla successfully concluded negotiations and secured Bocchus' capture of Jugurtha and the king's rendition to Marius' camp. Learning in Black and White. J. [63] All of these victories would have been won before the consular elections in October 89. He returned victorious from the east in 82 BC, marched a second time on Rome, and crushed the populares and their Italian allies at the Battle of the Colline Gate. [128], After the battle at the Colline Gate, Sulla summoned the Senate to the temple of Bellona at the Campus Martius. He defeated Norbanus at the Battle of Mount Tifata, forcing the consul to withdraw. Beginning Research Activities Student activities designed to help . Understanding Context: Awareness of the interconnection of events from the past, present and future. [76] The troops were willing to follow Sulla to Rome; his officers, however, realised Sulla's plans and deserted him (except his quaestor and kinsman, almost certainly Lucius Licinius Lucullus). Marius was elected consul and, through assignment by tribunician legislation, took over the campaign. [53] Sulla was regarded to have done well in the east: he had restored Ariobarzanes to the throne, been hailed imperator by his men, and was the first Roman to treat successfully with the Parthians. [79], Sulla then had Sulpicius' legislation invalidated on the grounds that they had been passed by force. An inscription on a sixteenth-century tombstone in Istanbul would be a primary source from the Classical Ottoman Age. [105] Sulla moved to intercept Flaccus' army in Thessaly, but turned around when Pontic forces reoccupied Boetia. Examples include interview transcripts, statistical data, and works of art. "[147] Plutarch claims he had seen Sulla's personal motto carved on his tomb on the Campus Martius. For list of offices and years, unless otherwise indicated, sfn error: no target: CITEREFKeaveney2006 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBadian2012 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBadian2012 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFSeager1994 (, Gabba, E. "Rome and Italy: the social war". Wikipedia entry. [23] The means by which Sulla attained the fortune which later would enable him to ascend the ladder of Roman politics are not clear; Plutarch refers to two inheritances, one from his stepmother (who loved him dearly) and the other from his mistress Nicopolis. A list of useful online sources for reading about Rome at the time of Sulla Bill Thayer's LacusCurtius - Includes maps of the Roman world, texts of several primary sources, and William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Primary sources provide raw information and first-hand evidence. [65] This had been preceded by the lex Julia, passed by Lucius Julius Caesar in October 90BC, which had granted citizenship to those allies who remained loyal. [citation needed], The second law concerned the sponsio, which was the sum in dispute in cases of debt, and usually had to be lodged with the praetor before the case was heard. Regardless, if he had immediate plans for a consulship, they were forced into the background at the outbreak of war. Pueblo, CO 81001. 134/4 C.Marius spends his early life in the countryside near Arpinum. Sulla then duly besieged the city. [55] The Cimbric war also revived Italian solidarity, aided by Roman extension of corruption laws to allow allies to lodge extortion claims. Also, Faustus Cornelius Sulla, Nero's cousin, was exiled as a potential rival in 58. Works of art, in general, are considered primary sources. [25], The Jugurthine War had started in 112BC when Jugurtha, grandson of Massinissa of Numidia, claimed the entire kingdom of Numidia in defiance of Roman decrees that divided it among several members of the royal family. [53], Relations between Rome and its allies (the socii), had deteriorated over the years up to 91BC. His family was patrician, part of the ruling class in ancient Rome. Archelaus then hid in the nearby marshes before escaping to Chalcis. [100] In need of resources, Sulla sacked the temples of Epidaurus, Delphi, and Olympia; after a battle with the Pontic general Archelaus outside Piraeus, Sulla's forces forced the Pontic garrison to withdraw by sea. National Archives Catalog Find online primary source materials for classroom & student projects from the National Archive's online catalog (OPA). They are different from secondary sources, accounts that retell, analyze, or interpret events, usually at a distance of time or place." Library of Congress Teacher's Page. There is no single tool that will find everything at UCR, but a good start is to reach . The collection currently contains . The hundreds of thousands of men who enlisted . Pompey, the son of Pompey Strabo, raised a legion from his clients in Picenum and also joined Sulla; Sulla treated him with great respect and addressed him as imperator before dispatching him to raise more troops. During these marriages, he engaged in an affair with Nicopolis, who also was older than him. [91], During close of the Social War, in 89BC, Mithridates VI Eupator of Pontus invaded Roman Asia. To this end, he reaffirmed the requirement that any individual wait for 10 years before being re-elected to any office. If Plutarch's text is to be amended to "Julia", then she is likely to have been one of the Julias related to Julius Caesar, most likely. According only to Appian, he then brought legislation to strengthen the Senate's position in the state and weaken the plebeian tribunes by eliminating the comitia tributa as a legislative body and requiring that tribunes first receive senatorial approval for legislation;[80] some scholars, however, reject Appian's account as mere retrojection of legislation passed during Sulla's dictatorship. [50][51], In 94BC, Sulla repulsed the forces of Tigranes the Great of Armenia from Cappadocia. His troops were sufficiently impressed by his leadership that they hailed him imperator. When Scipio refused, Sulla let him go. Marius, an Italian by birth rather than a pure Roman, was a relative newcomer to the Roman elite, and he was considered an outsider by the Senate fathers. These sieges lasted until spring of 86BC. Scipio's men quickly abandoned him for Sulla; finding him almost alone in his camp, Sulla tried again to persuade Scipio to defect. primary name: Sulla, Lucius Cornelius other name: Cornelius L f P n Sulla Felix . Plutarch states in his Life of Sulla that he retired to a life spent in dissolute luxuries, and he "consorted with actresses, harpists, and theatrical people, drinking with them on couches all day long." 719-549-2333. His troops prepared the ground by starting to dig a series of three trenches, which successfully contained Pontic cavalry. Categories . He brought Pompeii under siege. Introduction. "[148][149] Sulla's example proved that it could be done, therefore inspiring others to attempt it; in this respect, he has been seen as another step in the Republic's fall. The assembly of the people subsequently ratified the decision, with no limit set on his time in office. As this caused a general murmur, he let one day pass, and then proscribed 220 more, and again on the third day as many. Marius and Sulla are very curious figures in the late Roman Republic. He then sailed for Italy at the head of 1,200 ships. Primary Sources on the Web: Finding, Evaluating, Using. [86] He then left Italy with his troops without delay, ignoring legal summons and taking over command from a legate in Macedonia. A gifted and innovative general, he achieved numerous successes in wars against foreign and domestic opponents. Marius, offering his services to Cinna, helped levy troops. [92] In the summer of 88, he reorganised the administration of the area before unsuccessfully besieging Rhodes. This also removed the need for the censor to draw up a list of senators, since more than enough former magistrates were always available to fill the Senate. [100] The Pontic casualties given in Plutarch and Appian, the main sources for the battles, are exaggerated; Sulla's report that he suffered merely fifteen losses is not credible. Examples of tertiary sources include encyclopedias and dictionaries, chronologies, almanacs, directories, indexes, and bibliographies. [37], Starting in 104BC, Marius moved to reform the defeated Roman armies in southern Gaul. He married again, with a woman called Aelia, of which nothing is known other than her name. [68] Shortly after Sulla's election, probably in the last weeks of the year, Sulla married his daughter to one of his colleague Pompeius Rufus' sons. Also useful for understanding Sulla's career are the article by E. Baddian . Click the title for location and availability information. Tools for primary source analysis. Sulla hurried in full force towards Rome and there fought the Battle of the Colline Gate on the afternoon of 1 November 82BC. Possibly to protect himself from future political retribution, Sulla had the sons and grandsons of the proscribed banned from running for political office, a restriction not removed for over 30 years. Sulla, hearing this, feigned an attack while instructing his men to fraternise with Scipio's army. Sulla's law waived the sponsio, allowing such cases to be heard without it. Student Engagement: Primary source materials "help spark students . [54] Various proposals to give the allies Roman citizenship over the decades had failed for various reasons, just as the allies also "became progressively more aware of the need to cease to be subjects and to share in the exercise of imperial power" by acquiring that citizenship. [101], Sulla decamped his army from Attica toward central Greece. [98] He separately besieged Athens and Piraeus (the Long Walls had since been demolished). Sulla and Pompeius Rufus opposed the bill, which Sulpicius took as a betrayal; Sulpicius, without the support of the consuls, looked elsewhere for political allies. Helping or sheltering a proscribed person was punishable by death, while killing a proscribed person was rewarded with two talents. Sulla immediately proscribed 80 persons without communicating with any magistrate. Primary sources are first-hand accounts of events. [28][29], Under Marius, the Roman forces followed a very similar plan as under Metellus, capturing and garrisoning fortified positions in the African countryside. Over the previous 300 years, the tribunes had directly challenged the patrician class and attempted to deprive it of power in favor of the plebeian class. Sulla (P. Cornelius Sulla) - Roman praetor, 212 B.C. Primary sources include historical and legal documents, eyewitness accounts, results of experiments, statistical data, pieces of creative writing, and art objects. As a result, "husbands were butchered in the arms of their wives, sons in the arms of their mothers. [81.4] It note also contains an account of Thracian . Sulla marched to Praeneste and forced its siege to a close, with the younger Marius dead from suicide before its surrender. The proceeds from auctioned property more than made up for the cost of rewarding those who killed the proscribed, filling the treasury. If the latter, he may have married into the Julii Caesares. These sources have not been modified by interpretation and offer original thought or new information. "[132] The majority of the proscribed had not been enemies of Sulla, but instead were killed for their property, which was confiscated and auctioned off. He also divorced his then-wife Cloelia and married Metella, widow of the recently-deceased Marcus Aemilius Scaurus. To make primary texts readily available for classroom use, they selected important . He then fought successfully against Germanic tribes during the Cimbrian War, and Italian allies during the Social War. [70][71] They were designed to regulate Rome's finances, which were in a very sorry state after all the years of continual warfare. Washington, DC, March 19, 2013 - The U.S. invasion of Iraq turned out to be a textbook case of flawed assumptions, wrong-headed intelligence, propaganda manipulation, and administrative ad hockery, according to the National Security Archive's briefing book of declassified documents posted today to mark the 10 th anniversary of the war. [138], As promised, when his tasks were complete, Sulla returned his powers and withdrew to his country villa near Puteoli to be with his family. Deciding whether a source is primary or secondary is sometimes confusing. Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 BCE) was a ruthless military commander, who first distinguished himself in the Numidian War under the command of Gaius Marius.His relationship with Marius soured during the conflicts that would follow and lead to a rivalry which would only end with Marius' death.Sulla eventually seized control of the Republic, named himself dictator, and after eliminating his . Sulla played an important role in the long political struggle between the optimates and populares factions at Rome. Guide to primary sources; Ask for help; CSU Pueblo University Library Email Me. Sulla's descendants continued to be prominent in Roman politics into the imperial period. The two greatest of these were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla. [109] Faced with Fimbria's army in Asia, Lucullus' fleet off the coast, and internal unrest, Mithridates eventually met with Sulla at Dardanus in autumn 85BC and accepted the terms negotiated by Archelaus. In the sciences and social sciences, primary sources or 'primary research' are original research experiments, studies, or . His enemy, Lucius Cornelius Cinna, was elected consul for 87BC in place of his candidate;[83] his nephew was rejected as plebeian tribune while Marius' nephew was successful. In a dispute over the command of the war against Mithridates, initially awarded to Sulla by the Senate, but withdrawn as a result of Marius' intrigues, Sulla marched on Rome in an unprecedented act and defeated Marian forces in battle. [141][140][142][143][144] Accounts were also written that he had an infestation of worms, caused by the ulcers, which led to his death. The source types commonly used in academic writing include: Academic journals. "[158], His excesses and penchant for debauchery could be attributed to the difficult circumstances of his youth, such as losing his father while he was still in his teens and retaining a doting stepmother, necessitating an independent streak from an early age. Although he was able to regain the command, his political setup in Rome collapsed almost as soon as he left Italy, and the war would . Historians to Sulla's dictatorship such as Livy (From the Founding of the City) and Appian (Roman History, especially the section regarding the Civil Wars) include additional details of Marius' life during the Social War while other sources list brief statements of note. The two primary sources for this paper are Sallust's [42], Victorious, Marius and Catulus were both granted triumphs as the commanding generals. With the capture and execution of Carbo, who had fled Sicily for Egypt, both consuls for 82BC were now dead. Cicero comments that Pompey once said, "If Sulla could, why can't I? Sulla, undeterred, stood again for the praetorship the next year, promising he would pay for good shows; duly elected as praetor in 97BC, he was assigned by lot to the urban praetorship. The personal motto was "no better friend, no worse enemy.". Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship. Sulla rose to prominence during the war against the Numidian king Jugurtha, whom he captured as a result of Jugurtha's betrayal by the king's allies, although his superior Gaius Marius took credit for ending the war. Primary sources are available here primarily for use in high-school and university/college courses. Even those whom Sulla had quarrelled with (including Publius Cornelius Cethegus, whom Sulla had outlawed in 88 BC) defected to join his side. porterville unified school district human resources; Tags . The collection is particularly strong in the subject areas of education, psychology, American history, sociology, religion, and science and technology. Historians and other scholars classify sources as primary or secondary. He can hardly have been in any doubt. For now, Cinna and the Marian political faction would have to wait, but revenge would prove far deadlier than anything that had come before it. This, of course, meant that many cases were never heard at all, as poorer clients did not have the money for the sponsio. Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (/ s l /; 138-78 BC), commonly known as Sulla, was a Roman general and statesman.He won the first large-scale civil war in Roman history and became the first man of the Republic to seize power through force.. Sulla had the distinction of holding the office of consul twice, as well as reviving the dictatorship.A gifted and innovative general, he achieved . The United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917, when the U.S. Congress agreed to a declaration of war. be determined. [108] Adding to his challenges was Lucullus' fleet, reinforced by Rhodian allies. Research Process and Acumen: Experience with primary sources can support future academic success. [90] By the end of 87BC, Cinna and Marius had besieged Rome and taken the city, killed consul Gnaeus Octavius, massacred their political enemies, and declared Sulla an outlaw; they then had themselves elected consuls for 86BC. [127] In the north at the same time, Norbanus was defeated and fled for Rhodes, where he eventually committed suicide. Modern sources have been somewhat less damning, as the Mithridatic campaigns later showed that no quick victory over Pontus was possible as long as Mithridates survived. Sulla then increased the number of magistrates elected in any given year, and required that all newly elected quaestores gain automatic membership in the Senate. Secondary sources provide second-hand information and commentary from other researchers. N.S. Sulla also codified, and thus established definitively, the cursus honorum, which required an individual to reach a certain age and level of experience before running for any particular office. Revised on November 11, 2022. These two reforms were enacted primarily to allow Sulla to increase the size of the Senate from 300 to 600 senators. He left one of his allies, Quintus Lucretius Afella to maintain the siege at Praeneste and moved for Rome. Keep in mind as you use this website, the Web is always changing and evolving. The faculty and students of the Hanover College History Department initiated the Hanover Historical Texts Project in 1995, at a time when few primary sources were available outside of published anthologies. He was, however, defeated. Of the twelve outlaws, only Sulpicius was killed after being betrayed by a slave. The Roman general and dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (138-78 B.C.) However, if you were studying how compact fluorescent light bulbs are presented in the popular media, the magazine article could be considered a primary source. Even though the prosecutor declined to show up on the day of the trial, leading to Sulla's victory by default, Sulla's ambitions were frustrated. Later political leaders such as Julius Caesar would follow his precedent in attaining political power through force. This brief guide is designed to help students and researchers find and evaluate primary sources available online. He was to return the kingdoms of Bithynia and Cappadocia to Nicomedes and Ariobarzanes, respectively. [24] Keaveney 2005, pp. Making of America. He hinted to them that Marius would find other men to fight Mithridates, forcing them to give up opportunities to plunder the East, claims which were "surely false". [59] Sulla served as one of the legates in the southern theatre assigned to consul Lucius Julius Caesar. At the same time, Mithridates attempted to force a land battle in northern Greece, and dispatched a large army across the Hellespont. After Sulla had recovered the government by force of arms, everybody became robbers and plunderers. [69], Sulla started his consulship by passing two laws. A book from 1877 England would be a primary source about Victorian history. [61] Pompeii was taken some time during the year, along with Stabiae and Aeclanum; with the capture of Aeclanum, Sulla forced the Hirpini to surrender. This unusual appointment (used hitherto only in times of extreme danger to the city, such as during the Second Punic War, and then only for 6-month periods) represented an exception to Rome's policy of not giving total power to a single individual. They were, however, successful in holding Macedonia, then governed by propraetor Gaius Sentius and his legate Quintus Bruttius Sura. Newspaper reports, by reporters who witnessed an event or who quote people who did. The dictator is the subject of four Italian operas, two of which take considerable liberties with history: Sulla is a central character in the first three, Lucius Cornelius Sulla is also a character in the first book of the, His first wife was Ilia, according to Plutarch. [16] His father may have served as praetor, but details are unclear; his father married twice and Sulla' stepmother was of considerable wealth, which certainly helped the young Sulla's ambitions. Threatened by the Pontic navy, Sulla sent his quaestor Lucullus to scrounge about for allied naval forces. In a typical year, the Graduate Acting Department will personally audition more than 800 students in order to select an ensemble of 16 actors. He then attacked the Samnites and routed one of their armies near Aesernia before capturing the new Italian capital at Bovianum Undecimanorum. [139][140], Sulla's goal now was to write his memoirs, which he finished in 78 BC, just before his death. Identifying and locating primary sources can be challenging. [93] News of these conquests reached Rome in the autumn of 89BC, leading the Senate and people to declare war; actual preparations for war were, however, delayed: after Sulla was given the command, it took him some eighteen months to organise five legions before setting off; Rome was also severely strained financially. Essentially, they're sources about primary sources. At the meeting, he took the seat between the Parthian ambassador, Orobazus, and Ariobarzanes, seeking to gain psychological advantage over the Partian envoy by portraying the Parthians and the Cappadocians as equals with Rome as superior. Lucius Cornelius Sulla I. Campaigning on his military record, the people were unwilling to hear tales of military bravado from a mere junior officer after two triumphs. Scipio's army blamed him for the breakdown in negotiations and made it clear to the consul that they would not fight Sulla, who at this point appeared the peacemaker. Social War, also called Italic War, or Marsic War, (90-89 bc), rebellion waged by ancient Rome's Italian allies (socii) who, denied the Roman franchise, fought for independence. [130], In total control of the city and its affairs, Sulla instituted a series of proscriptions (a program of executing and confiscating the property of those whom he perceived as enemies of the state). He then revived the office of dictator, which had been inactive since the Second Punic War, over a century before. Sulla, in southern Italy, operated largely defensively on Lucius Julius Caesar's flank while the consul conducted offensive campaigning. At the same time, the younger Marius sent word to assemble the Senate and purge it of suspected Sullan sympathisers: the urban praetor Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus then had four prominent men killed at the ensuing meeting. Primary Sources are immediate, first-hand accounts of a topic, from people who had a direct connection with it. Throughout the research process, you'll likely use various types of sources. Hind 1992, p.150 dismisses claims in Plutarch and Vellius Paterclus of Athens being forced to cooperate with Mithridates as "very hollow" and "apologia". [17], One story, "as false as it is charming", relates that when Sulla was a baby, his nurse was carrying him around the streets, until a strange woman walked up to her and said, "Puer tibi et reipublicae tuae felix", which can be translated as, "The boy will be a source of luck to you and your state". [114], The general feeling in Italy, however, was decidedly anti-Sullan; many people feared Sulla's wrath and still held memories of his extremely unpopular occupation of Rome during his consulship. [87], Sulla's ability to use military force against his own countrymen was "in many ways a continuation of the Social War a civil war between former allies and friends developed into a civil war between citizens what was eroded in the process was the fundamental distinction between Romans and foreign enemies". [27], When Marius took over the war, he entrusted Sulla to organise cavalry forces in Italy needed to pursue the mobile Numidians into the desert. Despite initial difficulties, Sulla was successful with minimal resources and preparation; with few Roman troops, he hastily levied allied soldiers and advanced quickly into rugged terrain before routing superior enemy forces. Normally, candidates had to have first served for ten years in the military, but by Sulla's time, this had been superseded by an age requirement. This "firsthand" understanding of human motivations and the ordinary Roman citizen may explain why he was able to succeed as a general despite lacking any significant military experience before his 30s.[25]. Sulla's First Civil War (88-87 BC) was triggered by an attempt to strip him of the command against Mithridates and saw Sulla become the first Roman to lead an army against the city for four hundred years. [124] The purge did little to strengthen resolve and when Sulla arrived at Rome, the city opened its gates and his opponents fled. The Internet Modern History Sourcebook is one of series of history primary sourcebooks. But it was from 59, Nero's fifth year as emperor that things started to go seriously . [118], For 82BC, the consular elections returned Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, in his third consulship, with the younger Gaius Marius, the son of the seven-time consul, who was then twenty-six. [75], Speaking to the men, Sulla complained to them of the outrageous behaviour of Marius and Sulpicius. [6] He also disbanded his legions and, through these gestures, attempted to show the re-establishment of normal consular government. Further, Sulla failed to frame a settlement whereby the army (following the Marian reforms allowing nonland-owning soldiery) remained loyal to the Senate, rather than to generals such as himself. In fact, many sources can be either primary or secondary depending on the context of the research and of the source itself. They are the most direct evidence of a time or event because they were created by people or things that were there at the time or event. They are now largely lost, although fragments from them exist as quotations in later writers. [104], After the Battle of Chaeronea, Sulla learnt that Cinna's government had sent Lucius Valerius Flaccus to take over his command. He was both eloquent and clever, and he made friends easily. [115] Sulla, buoyed by his previous looting in Asia, was able to advance quickly and largely without the ransacking of the Italian countryside. In art, literature, and cultural studies, primary sources . [146] An epitaph, which Sulla composed himself, was inscribed onto the tomb, reading, "No friend ever served me, and no enemy ever wronged me, whom I have not repaid in full. Almost breaking before Marius' makeshift forces, Sulla then stationed troops all over the city before summoning the Senate and inducing it to outlaw Marius, Marius' son, Sulpicius, and nine others. [47], Sulla's campaign in Cappadocia had led him to the banks of the Euphrates, where he was approached by an embassy from the Parthian Empire. In the ensuing fight, Sulla defeated Marius, who consequently fled to Praeneste. Sulla was a man to whom, up to victory, sufficient praise can hardly be given, and for whom, after victory, no criticism can be adequate. [121], Fighting in 83BC began with reverses for Sulla's opponents: their governors in Africa and Sardinia were deposed.
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